LO2: Evaluate and interpret the micronutrient requirements of different sport and exercise participants and related issues.

Vitamins and minerals are needed for internal bodily functions such as the assistance of digestion, neurotransmission, and the release of fuel within the muscles for movement. As these are so important, The recommended daily amount to consume set by the government is 5 portions of different fruit and vegetables a day.Vitamins are organic and are consumed by eating fresh fruit and veg, whilst minerals come from the ground which vegetation grows upon, therefore plants, and animals that eat from the ground, such as cows, contain the minerals we need, therefore dairy produce can be nutritious with minerals. these minerals are

Fresh Dairy produce however, can contain high amounts of fats which for an athlete such as a gymnast, can have a negative effect on their performance if over consumed as it would be stored around the body, decreasing flexibility. But would benefit the endurance athlete 1-3 days prior to an endurance event, by giving them more energy stores. only milligrams and micrograms are needed. Minerals cannot be created or broken down by the body as they are 'inorganic' and vitamins can only be consumed, and cannot be made by the body.

Water and Fat soluble vitamins can only be absorbed when either is present. Vitamins A E D and K can only be absorbed via fat. These help growth and body maintenance; essential for both athletes. Water soluble vitamins B6, B12, C, Pantothenic Acid Biotin, Niacin, Riboflavin, Thiamine and Folate, assist with the release and use of energy within the body, replenishment, and neurotransmissions.

This is vitally important for a Gymnast, as their moves and skills, need to be self corrected at an expert level. If the athlete had severe deficiencies of thiamine, it could result in the athlete not performing and completing actions as smoothly as desired, due to poor efficiency of energy use and poor neurotransmission. This would also have a negative effect on the endurance athlete as it is essential for their bodies to be as efficient with the use of carbohydrates as physically possible, to put them in good stead for the race.

Long term deficiencies of Vitamins and minerals can have a negative effect on the body in later life, to the point of diseases such as Alzheimer's.

click here to read an article by McCaddon and Kelly, discussing the relation between Alzheimer's and vitamin b12 deficiencies.

LO3: Evaluate the appropriateness of nutritional strategies that aim to improve sport and exercise participant’s performance.

The Montana State University said in 1998 that Vitamins and minerals are needed by the body for internal functions by non athletes just as much as athletes. However compared to a normal RDA of 2000-2500 Kcal a day, an athlete's diet will contain more. Meaning more vitamins and minerals should be consumed in balance with the rest of the diet. An average male gymnast should consume a balanced diet of up to 3500 Kcal a day, to allow the muscles to build and replenish. A runner is recommended to consume a balanced diet of up to 3000 kcal. This is to maintain equilibrium of energy stores and to replenish muscles.

These diets should contain 55% carbohydrates, 15% protein and 30% fats (10% polyunsaturated 10% monounsaturated & 10% saturated)

Carbohydrates and proteins contain 4 kcal of energy per gram. Fat contains up to 8 kcal per grams.

•             NHS 2011 stated that a healthy balanced diet for an average adult should include:
•             Foods high in starch (complex carbs)
•             Fresh fruit and veg (vitamins and minerals)
•             Moderate amounts of meat fish or alternatives (protein and fats)
•             Milk and dairy (protein)
•             Small quantities of foods that contain sugar and fat
•             Maintaining alcohol intake to a sensible intake male 3-4 units female 2-3
•             55% carbs
•             15% protein
•             30% fat 

'Fad diets' is a term used for diets that have claimed to of benefitted some people in the way it says it will, however also have negative effects and do not always work effectively. Examples of these diets could be the 'Atkins' diet and the '5:2' diet. The Atkins diet is a low to no carb diet. Aiming to lose excess body fat and maintain steady sugar levels. The 5:2 diet requires that the person to consume less than 500 calories for 5 days a week, and for the other 2 days, to consume whatever the person may desire. The 5:2 diet is also designed to assist with weight loss, to live a longer life, and to reduce the risk of heart conditions and strokes.

 Athletes such as the runner and the gymnast would not fully benefit from the Atkins diet. The runner especially depends on carbohydrates for energy stores. Minimising complex carbohydrate intake and replacing it with simple carbohydrates will give the athlete fast releasing energy, not ideal when the runner will be exercising for up to or over 2 hours at a competition. Fatigue will set in extremely quick. If the gymnast were to uptake this diet leading up to competition, it would not have much of a drastic effect like it would with the runner, however, the simple carbohydrates consumed will play a good part in the short time that the athlete is performing for, but without a balanced diet, muscle atrophy will set in, decreasing the strength, therefore quality of performance from the gymnast. 

Dr. Cate Shanahan talks about how even non-athletes can feel fatigue due to low carb diets here.

If the runner were to uptake the 5:2 diet a week leading up to the event, it would possibly play a good part to their performance. A week before the event, endurance athletes tend to fast in order to 'start fresh' with what they put into their bodies. As a trained athletes metabolic rate (‘the rate at which we burn and use food for energy’. K. Marshall, 1999) is higher than the average adults, minimising intake of complex carbohydrates, their bodies will burn that excess energy as a last source. Carb loading 1-2 days before the event may provide the runner with new fresh complex energy that will be released slowly during the event. on the other hand, again the gymnast will not necessarily benefit from this. The fasting period will again bring on atrophy of the muscles, and loading up with carbohydrates and fats before an event will limit mobility and flexibility, overall decreasing quality of performance.

LO4:Present evaluate and interpret the guidelines for optimal rehydration for a range of sport/exercise participants.

Water and hydration play a huge part in sports performance. Staying hydrated during a sporting event is crucial and can be a deciding factor on the sport undertaken. An average non-athlete adult need to consume 8 pints a day as the body is 70% liquid, it is constantly using water for bodily functions and will fail to survive without it. Water can be lost through sweating, excretion and exhaled air.

Electrolytes (body salts) contain ‘free ions’ behave like an electrically conductive medium. They play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis. Water to electrolyte balance needs to stay constant and the same. If the body looses large amounts of electrolytes, unbalance will occur.
Sweat contains salt, chloride, potassium, magnesium and calcium.

During exercise, water losses through excretion is decreased and sweat production increases through thermoregulation, to keep the core body temperature as close to 37.6 degrees centigrade as possible. Other essential functions of water during exercise are:
• Lubrication for joints and membranes
• Transportation of nutrients such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the body, including other internal bodily transportation.
Dehydration is the deficiency of water. When dehydration sets in on an athlete such as the endurance runner, or the gymnast, symptoms of dehydration start to occur;
• Headache
• Sickness
• Tiredness
• Dizziness
• Dry mouth
• Clammy skin
• Heat cramps
• Rapid pulse
• Hallucinations
• Increased irregular body temperature
• No sweat or urine produced
All of which contribute to a depletion in quality of performance, when exercising, endurance runners can experience up to 10% of weight loss through dehydration. An athlete who has lost 2% of body weight loss through exercise will notice decreases in overall performance. A 4% loss lowers capacity of muscular endurance. Between 5-6% the athlete becomes heat exhausted. Between 7-9% it is apparent that hallucinations are experienced. Over 10 % heat stroke would start to take over and possible circulatory collapse could occur.

To avoid malnutrition through dehydration, athletes of all types are all recommended to load up on fluids prior to exercise to maximise starting hydration level and to keep a bottle of water with them as much as possible. This can be difficult for continuous sports, however gymnasts perform for up to 5 minutes at one time, therefore they have more availability to rehydrate optimally. Wear clothes specifically designed for exercise/sport to minimize sweat production, as that is the main source of fluid loss. Avoid diuretics such as alcohol or caffeine. Diuretics increase water loss through the excretion of urine, ultimately for both athletes, promoting dehydration. For replenishment, the best temperature for absorption via the digestive system is 15 degrees. However cooler drinks are more palatable.

Tap water and bottled water share differences, and have different effects on athlete’s hydration.
Tap water is the easiest to access in the UK; most households have a running tap of clean water. Unlike bottled water, fluoride is added by the water boards, to prevent tooth decay. Athletes who drink severe amounts of bottled water suffer from bad cases of tooth decay. The BBC investigated this here. Tap water is normally regarded as safe to drink. Unfortunately, because of the pipes that carry the water around the country, tap water can potentially contain aluminium and/or lead which are both anti-nutrients, which have a negative affect the body's functions.  Also, nitrates that are washed off of crops and plants, then eventually ends up in the supply. Taste can vary depending on geographical location due to the amount of lime within the water, making it less palatable when more lime is present.

Bottled water is still quite accessible in the UK, however costs more than tap water. It contributes to pollution, as bottles are not disposed of properly. It could also contain toxins and anti nutrients from the source of the spring, which is where it is collected. Despite this, this water is pure, reliable as it is monitored and tested by the company, which bottles it, and contains high volumes of vitamins and minerals, which is why it is often referred to as mineral water.

Other sources of rehydration that contain carbohydrates are isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic drinks. These drinks are sold worldwide to the public as 'sports drinks' and are not specifically outlined as one of the 3.

'Isotonic drinks are designed to quickly replace the fluids which are lost by sweating. They also provide a boost of carbohydrates. The body prefers to use glucose as its source of energy. Sometimes it is better to consume isotonic drinks where the carbohydrate source is a concentrated form of glucose. They are commonly drunk by athletes, especially middle and long distance runners, but all professional sportspeople use them in their daily training regimes."

'Hypertonic drinks are used to supplement your daily carbohydrate intake. They contain even higher levels of carbs than isotonic and hypotonic drinks. The best time to drink them is after exercise as they help your body to top up on muscle glycogen stores. These are your valuable energy stores. In very long distance events such as marathons, high levels of energy are required. Hypertonic drinks can also be taken during exercise to meet the energy requirements. However, it is advisable to only use them during exercise alongside isotonic drinks to replace fluids.'

'Hypotonic are designed to quickly replaces fluids lost through sweating. Unlike isotonic and hypertonic drinks they are low in carbohydrates. They are very popular with athletes who need fluid without the boost of carbohydrate. Jockeys and gymnasts use them regularly.
The best time to drink them is after a tough exercise work out as hypotonic drinks directly target the main cause of fatigue in sport - dehydration - by replacing water and energy fast.' 

                      
                                                                                        (BBC Sports, last accessed 2/3/16)


if the gymnast was to drink hypertonic drinks during an event, they would not maximise rehydration and replenishment of energy, as they would be inducing complex carbohydrates, which take the body longer to break down. this would result in possible muscle fatigue and weakness if the athlete has not consumed the sufficient amount of energy. A runner would not benefit fully from consuming hypotonic sports drinks, as they still need the hydration from the fluids, hypotonic drinks contain low amounts of carbohydrates. consuming this drink will only replace lost fluids, and not replenish a sufficient amount of energy for the athlete to notice a difference.

Hypernatremia- if too much fluid is consumed, it can dilute sodium levels in the blood and body cells. This is linked to endurance events as well as ecstasy taking. Side affects are nausea, vomiting, weakness, disorientation, confusion, brain swelling, and seizures. It can even cause death.

Reference List:

BBC SPORT. 2016. Sports Drinks. [ONLINE] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/health_and_fitness/4289704.stm. [Accessed 01 March 16].

British Nutrition Foundation. 2013. Healthy living. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.nutrition.org.uk/healthyliving/basics/fats.html. [Accessed 01 March 16].

Diary Australia . 2009. Sports Nutrition. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.nutritionaustralia.org/national/resource/sports-nutrition. [Accessed 01 March 16].

Dr.C.Shanahan . 2013. Fatigue from low Carb diets. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.drcate.com/got-fatigue-from-low-carb-diet-enter-contest-win-books/. [Accessed 01 March 16].

Montana State University. 1998. Healthy living. [ONLINE] Available at: http://btc.montana.edu/olympics/nutrition/eat13.html. [Accessed 01 March 16].

Nutritionist Pro. 2015. Carbohydrate Loading. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/carbohydrate-loading/art-20048518. [Accessed 01 March 16].

Bibliography:

Dr. T.M. John. 2015. Fat soluble vitamins. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.livestrong.com/article/282513-a-list-of-fat-soluble-vitamins/. [Accessed 01 March 16].

Jill Corleone. 2008. Nutritional tips for Male Gymnasts. [ONLINE] Available at: http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/nutrition-tips-men-gymnastics-9974.html. [Accessed 01 March 16].

LO1: Demonstrate knowledge of the underlying concepts and principles of macronutrients and the macronutrient requirements of different sports and exercise participants

 The first thing an athlete needs is energy. we consume macronutrients (carbohydrates fats and proteins) for many different functions, however the primary source of energy that we need and use is carbohydrates the recommended daily intake should be 55% of what we consume. Carbohydrates can be broken up into two groups; simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are sugars Simple carbs are sweet, and soluble in water. The simplest forms of a carbohydrate are Monosaccharides (ribose glucose fructose galactose) and Disaccharides. These contain either 1 or 2 of the different sugars. ie: Table sugar is fructose and glucose fused by a glycosidic bond. This disaccharide is called sucrose. Each have small atomic structures, which allow the body to break them down fast, making it the quickest source of energy consumable. Other food examples; honey, caramel, jams/preserves, chocolate, fizzy drinks.

Disaccharide

monosaccharide

Complex carbohydrates not only have a starchy taste, but have a larger atomic structure, the most complex carbohydrates are called oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides have between 3-10 monosaccharides all bonded by glycosidic bonds whilst Polysaccharides have up to 3000 monosaccharides in 1 structure. due to the scale of these macromolecules, it takes the body much longer to break down. Each of these can be broken down back into monosaccharides through a process called hydrolysis (the specific name for the breakdown of glycogen is glycolysis) Food examples: Potatoes, pasta, rice, bread. 

oligosaccharide

Polysaccharide

Between 1-3 days prior to an endurance event to save the athlete from feeling uncomfortable, athletes start 'carbo loading’. Exceeding the recommended daily amount, this is a strategy to increase the amount of fuel stored within the muscles to improve the athlete’s aerobic endurance. It means athletes have to eat excessive amounts of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides to be stored as fat; being pasta, potato based meals, rice, and other starchy foods.  (Nutritionist Pro, 2015)

However, gymnasts would not benefit from this strategy, as their activity requirements are completely different. The runner will only use their aerobic respiratory system and will need enough energy to keep them going for at least 2 hours at a fixed rate. The Gymnast will only be performing each of their activities for less than 5 minutes at a time. And will be using both aerobic and anaerobic respiratory systems, depending on the exact movement they wish to complete. I.e.; holding a crucifix position on the Olympic rings as to running up to a vault.

The gymnast will need smaller amounts of complex carbohydrates before the event but may want more simple carbohydrates to provide them with a quick release of energy, to assist their anaerobic respiration. 

If the gymnast was to consume a large amount of complex carbohydrates, it will not be used in full, resulting in the body storing it as fat, making the gymnast heavier, less agile and less flexible.

Despite this, it is recommended that over 30% of the recommended daily intake should be fats. Fats are needed for insulation, it provides buoyancy in water, and certain micronutrients are only soluble when fat is present. The three different types of fats are monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and saturated. Unsaturated fats contain unsaturated acids, which are liquid at room temperature. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated help to maintain cholesterol levels that are found in vegetable oils such as olive, rapeseed and sunflower oils, avocados, nuts and seeds. Too much saturated fat will increase the risk of heart disease and stroke due to levels of bad cholesterol. Saturated fats remain solid at room temperature, ie: butter and lard. (British Nutrition Foundation, 2013)

Differences in the Atomical Structure of Fats.

without sufficient exercise such as running or gymnastics, extensive intake of fats over a long period could result in obesity, increased chances of heart attacks, angina or strokes.

Even as a non-athlete, protein is a part of the human DNA. There are Around 50000 in the body, and only 1000 have been studied. Structural proteins support hair and nail growth, transport proteins within the blood, such as haemoglobin, carries oxygen and carbon dioxide around the circulatory system and Regulatory proteins act as hormones, such as insulin  Protein is essential for an athlete of any sport for muscle growth and repair, movement and as an emergency energy source.  The contractile proteins in the muscle that play a part in the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction are Actin and Myosin. A Gymnast would need a higher daily intake than the recommended 15% of protein to maintain and improve the muscle mass and strength, so they are able to perform to a world-class standard. A marathon runner would not need a huge amount of protein but still needs more than the RDA as they are working their muscles for longer periods; it takes longer for the muscles to replenish. 

Actin and Myosin shown as a relaxed(top)
and contracted(bottom)

Most athletes are told to consume as much protein as possible, however, the body can only contain a certain amount. Therefore excess protein is excreted through faeces and urine.